Coloring Mechanisms and Archaeometric Identification of Ancient Black Pottery: A Cross-Cultural Review

Yuqi Jia

doi:10.54691/82nyhy94

Authors

Yuqi Jia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.54691/82nyhy94

Keywords:

Black Pottery; Firing Technology; Coloring Mechanism; Carbon Infiltration; Reduction Firing; Three-Stage Firing; Burnishing; Archaeometry.

Abstract

Black pottery is widely attested across Neolithic China and the Classical Mediterranean, yet the physicochemical origins of its black coloration differ substantially between these regions. This review classifies ancient black pottery firing techniques into four categories based on coloring mechanism: (1) reduction firing, where iron oxides are converted to magnetite or wüstite under oxygen-depleted conditions; (2) carbon infiltration, where free carbon from incomplete combustion deposits in the ceramic body; (3) three-stage oxidation–reduction–reoxidation firing, which produces black iron-based glass-ceramic coatings; and (4) burnishing, where directional alignment of platy minerals suppresses diffuse reflection. For each category, we review formation mechanisms, archaeological examples, and diagnostic microstructural features. A hierarchical analytical framework is then presented, ranging from non-destructive screening to micro-area quantitative analysis. Common pitfalls including post-depositional alterations and equifinality in technique attribution are discussed, alongside emerging techniques such as synchrotron micro-X-ray diffraction, X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy, and micro-computed tomography. Cross-cultural comparison reveals that Chinese and Mediterranean potters developed parallel yet distinct strategies for controlling kiln atmosphere and surface microstructure.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

[1] Xiao R, Cui J F. A Review of Research on the Coloring Mechanisms of Neolithic Black Pottery [J]. Archaeological Studies, 2020, 14: 217–222. (in Chinese)

[2] Li W L, Wei C X. Research on the Carbon Infiltration Technique of Black Pottery [J]. Shandong Ceramics, 2020, 43(2): 13–17. (in Chinese)

[3] Lu X K, Li W D, Liu B, Li X W. Analytical Study of Pottery from the Liangzhu Ancient City Site [J]. Scientia Sinica Technologica, 2013 (4): 460–466. (in Chinese)

[4] Aloupi-Siotis E. Ceramic Technology: How to Characterise Black Fe-Based Glass-Ceramic Coatings [M]// Hunt A M W. The Oxford Handbook of Archaeological Ceramic Analysis. Oxford University Press, 2020.

[5] Maggetti M, Galetti G, Schwander H, Picon M, Wessicken R. Campanian Pottery: The Nature of the Black Coating [J]. Archaeometry, 1981, 23(2): 199–207.

[6] Zhou R, Zhang F K, Zheng Y P. A Scientific Summary of Pottery-Making Techniques in the Neolithic and Yin–Zhou Periods of the Yellow River Valley [J]. Acta Archaeologica Sinica, 1964 (1): 1–27. (in Chinese)

[7] Liu P. Study on the Carbon Infiltration Mechanism of Black Pottery [J]. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 1992 (5): 20–26. (in Chinese)

[8] Cianchetta I, Trentelman K, Maish J, Saunders D, Faber K T, Walton M. Investigating the Firing Protocol of Athenian Pottery Production: A Raman Study of Replicate and Ancient Sherds [J]. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 2015, 46: 996–1002.

[9] Kim S J, Moon D H, Cho H G. Production Techniques of Black Burnished Potteries from the Hanseong Period of the Baekje Kingdom [J]. Minerals, 2022, 12: 877.

[10] Solard B, Amicone S, Aloupi-Siotis E, Heinze L, Berti F, Lambrugo C, Berthold C. Back to Black: A Mineralogical and Chemical Characterisation of Atticising Fourth Century BCE Black Gloss Ware [J]. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 2023, 15: 135.

[11] Lu X K, Li W D, Luo H J. The Black Pottery Coating of Longshan Times from Taosi Site [J]. Science China: Technological Sciences, 2011, 54(7): 906–912.

[12] Guo Q. Coloring Principle and Firing Process of Black Pottery [J]. Shandong Ceramics, 1996 (3): 35–37. (in Chinese)

[13] Maritan L, Nodari L, Mazzoli C, Milano A, Russo U. Influence of Firing Conditions on Ceramic Products: Experimental Study on Clay Rich in Organic Matter [J]. Applied Clay Science, 2006, 31: 1–15.

[14] Nodari L, Marcuz E, Maritan L, Mazzoli C, Russo U. Sandwich Structures in the Etruscan-Padan Type Pottery [J]. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 2004, 24: 2927–2935.

[15] Lima D F, Toledo R, Martins A, Lima T O, Bertolino L C, Franco R W A. FeIII in Pottery: Identifying Firing Temperature and Ambiguity [J]. Applied Clay Science, 2020, 190: 105581.

[16] Xia Z K, Li F, Zhang D L. Raw Material and Technological Analysis of Longshan Culture Pottery from the Hui River Basin, Yongcheng [J]. Heritage Science, 2025, 13: 15.

[17] Li W J, Huang S Y. A Brief Discussion on the Carbon Infiltration Technique of Daxi Culture Pottery [J]. Jianghan Archaeology, 1985 (4): 46–51. (in Chinese)

[18] Shen J X, Zhai J W, Li C S, Zhang L. Microstructural Analysis and Carbon Infiltration Study of Longshan Black Pottery [J]. China Ceramics, 2008 (3): 43–45. (in Chinese)

[19] Zhu T Q, Wang C S, Xu D L, Wu J. Preliminary Study on the Carbon Infiltration Process of Black Pottery from the Shuangdun Site [J]. Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology, 2005, 17(2): 1–8. (in Chinese)

[20] Pan K R, Zhu T Q, Wang C S, Zhang J Z. Study on the Coloring Mechanism of Western Han Black Pottery from the Shuanglong Cemetery in Lu'an [J]. Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology, 2018, 30(4): 38–45. (in Chinese)

[21] Łaciak D, Bartz W, Sajnog A, Drzewicz P. Archaeometric Characterisation and Origin of Black Coatings on Prehistoric Pottery [J]. Archaeometry, 2019, 61(6): 1330–1348.

[22] Blackmore H, Cho D, Lee H W. All for One? The Production of Black Burnished Pottery and State Formation in the Early Korean Polity of Baekje [J]. Archaeometry, 2021, 63(3): 531–548.

[23] Uhm Y R, Kim K Y, Kim S J, Moon D H, Cho H G. Magnetic and Chemical Characterization of Black Pottery from Hanseong Baekje Archaeological Site, South Korea [J]. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 2021, 330: 419–426.

[24] Maritan L, Holakooei P, Mazzoli C. Shades of Black: Production Technology of the Black Slip Ware from Barikot, North-Western Pakistan [J]. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2020, 43: 271–279.

[25] Choi S, Kim S J, Moon D H, Cho H G. A Study on the Characteristics of the Excavated Pottery in Hanseong and Sabi Periods of the Baekje Kingdom (South Korea) [J]. Minerals, 2024, 14: 256.

[26] Moon D H, Kim S J, Nam S W, Cho H G. X-ray Diffraction Analysis of Clay Particles in Ancient Baekje Black Pottery: Indicator of the Firing Parameters [J]. Minerals, 2021, 11: 1239.

[27] Dietrich D, Nolze G, Del-Solar-Velarde N, Nickel D, Lampke T, Chapoulie R, Castillo Butters L J. The Potential of EBSD and EDS for Ceramics Investigations—Case Studies on Sherds of Pre-Columbian Pottery [J]. Archaeometry, 2018, 60(3): 489–501.

[28] Smith G D, Clark R J H. Raman Microscopy in Archaeological Science [J]. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2004, 31: 1137–1160.

[29] van der Weerd J, Smith G D, Firth S, Clark R J H. Identification of Black Pigments on Prehistoric Southwest American Potsherds by Infrared and Raman Microscopy [J]. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2004, 31: 1429–1437.

[30] Tankova V, Atanassova V, Mihailov V, Pirovska A. Identification of Mineral Pigments on Red- and Dark-Decorated Prehistoric Pottery from Bulgaria [J]. Minerals, 2025, 15(8): 877.

[31] Cousins D R, Dharmawardena K G. Use of Mössbauer Spectroscopy in the Study of Ancient Pottery [J]. Nature, 1969, 223: 732–733.

[32] Ricciardi P, Nodari L, Russo U. Firing Techniques of Black Slipped Pottery from Nepal (12th–3rd Century B.C.): The Role of Mössbauer Spectroscopy [J]. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2008, 9: 261–268.

[33] Choi H, Kang M K, An H H, Jang S, Sun G M, Moon D H, Kim S B, Uhm Y R, Kim C S. Ceramic Color as an Unreliable Proxy for Firing Conditions: New Approaches from Gwanbuk-ri Site, Korea [J]. Journal of Archaeological Science, 2025, 175: 106387.

[34] Medeghini L, De Vito C, Mignardi S, Broglia M, Lottici P P. How Microanalysis Can Be Discriminant on Black Pompeian Wares [J]. Microchemical Journal, 2020, 158: 105181.

[35] Jones R E. The Decoration and Firing of Ancient Greek Pottery: A Review of Recent Investigations [J]. Progress in Natural Science: Materials International, 2021.

[36] De Vito C, Medeghini L, Mignardi S, Ferrini V. Technological Fingerprints of Black-Gloss Ware from Motya (Western Sicily, Italy) [J]. Applied Clay Science, 2014, 88–89: 202–210.

[37] Scarpelli R, Clark R J H, De Francesco A M. Archaeometric Study of Black-Coated Pottery from Pompeii by Different Analytical Techniques [J]. Spectrochimica Acta Part A, 2014, 120: 60–66.

[38] Amicone S, Forte V, Solard B, Berthold C, Memmesheimer A, Mirković-Marić N. Playing with Fire: Exploring Ceramic Pyrotechnology in the Late Neolithic Balkans through an Archaeometric and Experimental Approach [J]. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2021, 37: 102878.

[39] Wang F, Li M. Mössbauer Study of the Black-Glazed Jian Bowl in the Song Dynasty [J]. International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology, 2023.

[40] Amicone S, Memmesheimer A, Solard B, Gur-Arieh S, Rogier M, Heinze L, Berthold C. An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Study of Kiln Firing: A Case Study from the Campus Galli Open-Air Museum (Southern Germany) [J]. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 2023, 15: 111.

[41] Reedy C L, Reedy C L. Micro-Computed Tomography with 3D Image Analysis to Reveal Firing Temperature Effects on Pore Systems in Archaeological and Ethnographic Ceramics [J]. Applied Sciences, 2022, 12(22): 11448.